Session 9: How History Shaped Our Ideas of Gender

April 27, 2025 (Sunday) 

Participants: 4

Study Group on “Moving Beyond Gender Roles,” Session 9

“Images of Womanhood and Manhood Through the Lens of Gender History”

For our ninth meeting we read Chapter 3, “Femininity and Masculinity as Historical Variables — Gender History,” from Naoko Yuge’s An Introduction to Western Gender History: From Family History to Global History.

 Setting aside the male-centered gaze in history implied by “HIS-tory,” we used topics at the crossroads of medicine, developmental psychology, and gender studies to question the gender assumptions that shape our bodies and minds.

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Women’s Bodies and Medicine

“Is Morning Sickness Something You’re Supposed to Endure?”

We began with morning sickness, a condition many women face in early pregnancy. Because modern medicine was long built around the male body as the norm, women-specific symptoms and pain have often been downplayed and under-researched. While severity is usually blamed on the mother’s “constitution,” some studies suggest the foreign protein in semen also plays a role, meaning symptoms may vary by partner. This echoes the idea that infertility is “the woman’s fault,” and helps us rethink how responsibility is unevenly assigned by sex.

“Sexual Dimorphism and Bodily Sensation”

Next we looked at how socially planted images—“girls are soft and fluffy,” for example—clash with real bodily feelings. A lively side track was smell: infant scent, the odor of adolescents, gendered body smells, and how odor can symbolize hierarchy or power. Like other mammals, “the one who smells stronger claims the space,” prompting us to connect scent, gender, and social structure.

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Rethinking “For-Women” Design

We centered the discussion on the question “What exactly is ‘design for women’?” and explored how gender differences are framed in design and how the images consumed around them are created.

“Whose Body Sets the Design Standard?”

Many industrial products are engineered around a 170 cm (5′7″) male body. Car interiors, controls, even the feel of use follow this default. Compact women drivers report awkward fits, and cars marketed “for women” often overcompensate with pastel interiors, rounded shapes, and an emphasis on “light handling.” Even if easier handling reflects average strength differences, tying soft colors and curves to femininity felt off to several participants.

“Who Creates ‘Demand’?”

Do product colors and features arise from real preferences or from market conditioning? Pink for girls, navy for boys still lingers, yet one child remarked, “Everyone’s backpack is a different color—how can any hue be a ‘girl color’?” Anime like Pretty Cure may shape kids’ color choices; what looks personal choices may be media-made. Historically, the 19th century deliberately sharpened material gender markers—fabric, hue, form—to visually reproduce the gendered division of roles.

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Female & Male In-Group Bonds

We shared our own experiences of how friendships develop among girls and boys and how those relationships shift as we grow up.

“Chum and Gang Age”

Around grades 3-4, children enter the so-called “chum” or “gang” stage. Some felt girls forge tight solidarity by sharing secrets or matching accessories—classic “chum” behavior that builds identity. Boys, in contrast, were seen as regrouping fluidly for each new goal, a habit that may persist into adulthood. Yet many kids never join a clique at all, reminding us that bonding styles are diverse. We also asked where observation ends and stereotypes begins.

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“Women Are Emotional, Men Are Rational”—Really?

The notion that “women are emotional while men are rational” is a gender stereotype we have absorbed almost unconsciously. How deeply have our lives been shaped by this binary way of seeing the world?

“Hysterical Men?”

We explored the emotion–reason split. Empathy and emotional openness are labeled feminine; goal-oriented objectivity, masculine. Society rewards the latter. But some women calmly rein in feelings, some men can’t. Is valuing emotion a flaw? Examples surfaced: a middle-aged man cursing in public is rarely called “emotional,” while an angry woman is “hysterical.” The word hysteria comes from “uterus,” and some participants said they felt uneasy about the fact that the term “hysterical” is often applied to women.

“Beyond the Binary”

The binary shapes life choices—school, work, marriage, parenting. One member noted schools quietly enforce gendered expectations; children suppress likes and behaviors to act “like a boy” or “like a girl,” perhaps storing up unseen stress. The rational/emotional frame narrows our options and even our sense of self. Today’s kids experience the world differently, yet social structures still lean on that binary.

Minutes by Danshiro

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Reference:

Naoko Yuge,

An Introduction to Western Gender History: From Family History to Global History,

Chapter 3: “Femininity and Masculinity as Historical Variables—Gender History.”

An accessible overview showing how gender has been historically constructed, offering clues for its deconstruction.

Session 7: Exploring the Family of the Future through Family History

Sunday, February 16, 2025

Participants: 5

Overcoming Gender Roles, Session 7

“Exploring the Family of the Future through Family History”

In the seventh meeting of our Gender Roles study group, we discussed Chapter 1, “The ‘Good Old Extended Family’ Is an Illusion—Family History,” from Naoko Yuge’s ‘An Introduction to Western Gender History: From Family History to Global History’, and exchanged our thoughts.

What Is “Family”? Although the concept of “family” may seem immutable, its form has evolved over time.

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Changing Attitudes toward Marriage

“Arranged Marriages as Political Strategy”

Looking back on the history of marriage, we see that unions were often formed for purposes other than personal affection. For example, arranged marriages were used to strengthen alliances between states or families, with little regard for romantic love. One participant observed that people of the time may have regarded marriage purely as a business arrangement—an idea that resonates today, when some couples marry to boost their social-media followings or mutual business interests, much like the political marriages of old.

“Who Sanctions a Marriage?”

In the West, churches maintained registers of marriages and funerals, thereby defining family structure within a religious framework. Before the Meiji Restoration, when surnames did not yet exist in Japan, Shinto shrines kept parishioner lists and Buddhist temples kept parish rolls, using shop names, place names, or lineage to identify and record individuals—a resource some participants said they had even seen. Over time, the recognition of marriage shifted from shrines, temples, and churches to state registration. This raises the question: in the future, who will recognize and regulate partnerships?

Moreover, people today can choose not to marry at all but to formalize their relationship as a civil partnership—such as France’s PACS (enacted 1999)—or live in de facto unions, form stepfamilies, or practice polyamory. In Germany, for instance, a growing number of women choose to become single mothers without marrying because they want children but do not wish to wed.

Our discussion also questioned the origin of the Western ideal of lifelong monogamy, with some participants asking whether the harsh social condemnation of adultery is really necessary—and whether some people might simply lack feelings of jealousy altogether. It seems likely that the institution of marriage will continue to diversify.

We also expanded our lens to Japanese family history. Did Jōmon-period communities recognize mating pairs? Did they ask “Whose child is this?” or raise children collectively? While a diversity of family forms could be acceptable so long as children’s rights are protected, some voiced concerns that Japan might retrace the Western pattern of establishing foundling hospitals and abandoning children.

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Changing Attitudes toward Romance

“Dating, Cohabitation, and Marriage”

Over time the concept of marriage in many societies shifted from a purely economic or political arrangement to one grounded in love. Today, romance is presumed—and premarital cohabitation is increasingly common. Once socially stigmatized, cohabitation is now viewed as a rational way for couples to test compatibility, learn each other’s habits, and reduce the risk of post-marital discord or divorce. The reframing of “shotgun weddings” as “blessing-in-disguise marriages” (dekichatta-kon → sazukari-kon) reflects this more positive attitude toward cohabitation and premarital parenthood.

“How Dating Apps Are Changing Courtship”

Many felt that the rise of dating apps has transformed the way people pursue relationships. By clarifying intentions up front—so that users don’t have to wonder “Does this person like me?”—dating apps have become mainstream: one in four singles uses them. Some services even employ AI personality assessments to match compatible partners, cutting out much of the uncertainty and emotional labor of traditional dating. One of the participants worries, however, that such platforms may reduce romance to an algorithm, bypassing the “five senses” experience of falling in love. Others pointed out that when people use apps to make friends, they tend to congregate with like-minded individuals, which can erode group diversity and stifle flexibility in larger social or organizational contexts.

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Communities Beyond the Nuclear Family

We also explored forms of community that lie outside—or beside—marriage and blood ties.

1. Room Sharing

House-sharing isn’t just about economics; it can provide emotional support, too. Some noted that sharing a home among three or more people with defined roles may foster especially stable relationships. It’s even possible that someone might return each evening to their housemates after dating outside the household, treating the share-house as their primary “home base.”

2. AI and the Family

Participants speculated that AI could further expand our notion of family. AI assistants are already commonplace—many households ask Alexa to turn off the lights—and families sometimes consult AI for group decisions. Voice-cloning technology can even recreate the voices of deceased loved ones, suggesting a future in which AI “family members” help sustain emotional connections.

3. Large-Scale Communities

Communities formed around shared beliefs or values. For example, churches can function like families for their members, offering weekly gatherings, mutual support, and a sense of security. Some said it’s easier to start conversations without small talk when you already share core values; others noted that blood relation doesn’t guarantee closeness. It seems that people who wish to balance solitude and social connection may continue to forge “family-like” bonds within such value-based communities.

Finding the right balance in how we relate to society may give rise to community structures resembling families. The fixed idea of “what a family should be” is itself a product of history, and many participants felt—and were optimistic—that the forms families take will continue to evolve.

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Children within the Family

In early 17th-century Western society, children were treated as laborers, and the family functioned primarily as an economic unit. Children were not yet viewed as beings to be “protected.”

“Wet Nurses and the Politics of Breastfeeding”

The culture of entrusting infants to wet nurses was not only a way to lighten the mother’s burden but also connected to the nutritional quality of breast milk and the mother’s social standing. In Japan, imperial women traditionally did not breastfeed their own children but relied on wet nurses. In the West, women who worked in the fields were believed to produce richer milk—perhaps due to metabolic differences. Because colostrum (first milk) is especially rich in immune factors critical for a newborn’s health, participants wondered at what point mothers handed their babies over—and whether that structure resembles today’s daycare centers.

“The Weight of a Child’s Life”

Some noted that the value placed on a child’s life has changed over time. It was once common for an infant in the care of a wet nurse to die; today, any accident that occurs when parents or caregivers look away invites severe scrutiny. We’ve entered an era in which even reprimanding or disciplining a child can feel fraught. With modern knowledge limiting caffeine or alcohol during pregnancy, we show far greater concern for the unborn child’s welfare than past generations did.

The discussion also turned to the balance of “control and freedom” in parenting. Equipping a child with a GPS tracker can give parents peace of mind—but it may also deprive the child of learning to assess their own safety. How much parents should monitor their children varies by generation, reflecting shifting social values. Raising children, it seems, is not only a parental duty but also deeply intertwined with broader changes in societal attitudes.

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Conclusion

In this session, by tracing the history of the family, we exchanged views on today’s family structures and those of the future. Three key insights emerged:

1. The Changing and Diversifying Forms of Marriage

   Family structures have evolved over time, and today we see a proliferation of common-law marriages, formal partnership statutes, polyamory, and more. The authority overseeing marriage has shifted from religious institutions to the state.

2. Communities beyond the Family

   Beyond blood relations, there are roommate households, religious congregations, AI companions, and other communities that provide both emotional and economic support in diverse ways.

3. The Status of Children and the Evolution of Childcare

   Whereas children were once viewed as economic assets, modern society emphasizes children’s rights—but also wrestles with balancing parental control and children’s autonomy.

Moving forward, family forms will continue to diversify and change. By continually asking “What is family?” and reevaluating our own fixed notions, we can help create a society that respects each person’s choice of family.

Recorded by Danshiro

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References:

“First Steps in Western Gender History: From Family History to Global History.”

Written by Yuge, Naoko 

Chapter 1: The Myth of the Good Old Extended Family—A History of the Family.

An accessible introduction that explores how gender has been constructed historically, offering a foundation for rethinking gender today.

Session 6: Body, Feminism, and Porn

Sunday, January 19, 2024

Participants: 5

Overcoming Gender Roles: Session Six

“Body, Feminism, and Porn”

Women’s Bodies and Abortion

We discussed problems around access to the morning-after pill. In Japan, it’s commonly understood only as treatment after rape, whereas abroad some couples even use it casually as contraception. One participant was asked by a foreign couple, “Where can we buy the morning-after pill?” In Japan today, it requires a doctor’s prescription and must be taken within 72 hours of intercourse. As a result, some people who need it can’t get it and end up having abortions.

Under the Maternal Protection Law, abortion is permitted only before 22 weeks’ gestation, based on when a fetus could survive outside the mother. But opinions differ—depending on religious or cultural background—about when life acquires human rights. Some held that life begins at implantation, others at ovulation, and still others even at the egg or sperm stage. For example, one person pointed out that “sperm that never fertilizes dies,” suggesting that even eggs and sperm are living individuals. We listened closely to these varying perspectives on the stages of life.

Recently, a compensation system for victims of the old Eugenics Protection Law went into effect. Victims who were forced to undergo sterilization or abortion—and their spouses—will receive compensation. We reflected on the era when the state compelled abortion under criminal law, and discussed whether today’s Maternal Protection Law truly allows women full freedom to choose for their own bodies—taking into account access to the morning-after pill and the role of spouses.

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Gender Differences in Revealing Clothing

Perceptions of how much skin is too much vary by country and region. Even wearing the same outfit can feel “too revealing” or not, depending on one’s upbringing and current environment. Some participants wondered, “Does hiding something only make people more curious?” Others asked, “When I choose a design that draws the eye to the chest, am I really choosing for myself—or am I choosing to suit a man’s preferences?” Some found that frustrating. Meanwhile, others pick out clothes for their indifferent spouses, showing how varied the reasons and backgrounds are for choosing one’s level of exposure.

There was also a view that women enjoy more freedom in dress. For example, while it’s normal for women to wear pants, men rarely pick skirts for the sake of coolness in summer. Even as unisex school uniforms become more common, such fixed ideas about clothing are hard to overcome. In both genders, then, we see constraints on dress choices rooted in gender.

These attitudes have changed over time. In the past in Japan, it wasn’t unusual to see mothers nursing on the train with their breasts exposed. We offered several reasons why that disappeared: as families became nuclear, it was harder to nurse without hiding, so exposure was accepted; the shift from kimono to Western dress increased visible nursing; and women’s breasts were openly recognized for their maternal function. Today, many mothers hide under nursing covers in front of in-laws or nurse in private rooms at their parents’ homes. We felt that societal values shift not only by region but also by era.

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How Oversimplification Silences Voices

Even within the “straight” sexual orientation, there are many differences. Yet, for the sake of concise discussion, people often lump everyone together as “straight.” If you try to explain every nuance, the conversation never reaches a conclusion, and someone asks, “So what exactly are you saying?” By simplifying complex issues, the essence can become hidden. This has happened in the history of the women’s movement: to make women’s demands easier to present, diversity of sexual orientation was excluded, and lesbians were marginalized within the movement. In any movement involving people from diverse backgrounds, simplification helps understanding but risks sacrificing that very diversity. Sometimes, in order to boost TV ratings, shows are produced that strip the content down to neat, clear-cut opposites, making them “easy to watch.”

Some people want the conclusion immediately; others want to share the whole complicated process. One participant suggested that men feel uneasy without a clear conclusion, while women tend to accept ambiguity and avoid rushing to judgment. Looking back at history, even women’s voices have been silenced: during the Freedom and People’s Rights Movement, women were not allowed to speak on rights, so men read their speeches for them. Such environments, where the stakeholders couldn’t speak directly, made it hard to convey passion and conviction.

That “male-centered” bias remains in some areas today. For example, at weddings it’s customary for only the groom to give a speech. We recognized that men still often occupy the “speaker” role in many contexts.

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Porn and Sexual Expression

“Erotica vs. Porn - the Difference”

Finally, we discussed sexual expression in pornography. One opinion was that violent sexual scenes serve men’s desires to dominate and possess. Pornography often centers on male desire, with far fewer expressions reflecting women’s sexuality. Others countered that male and female sexual desire might genuinely differ. When violent scenes appear in porn shoots, questions arise about whether the actors’ human rights are respected. In mainstream films and media, by contrast, women’s nipples are prohibited regardless of context, revealing an imbalance in how sexual expression of male and female bodies is regulated. We debated what criteria should distinguish erotica (literary or artistic sexual expression) from pornography, and how our own values shape those boundaries.

“Childrearing and Pornography”

Discussion also arose from the standpoint of childrearing and pornography consumption. One participant argued that instead of simply banning pornography, we should teach that “porn is fantasy.” In practice, some adult‐video directors and performers are doing outreach to show what really happens behind the scenes of shoots, so that young people learn not to confuse fantasy with reality.

However, the advance of AI technology has created new problems. With AI tools, even children can easily map a person’s face onto pornographic videos—and when such deepfakes circulate on social media, the victim’s human rights are violated. This echoes earlier incidents in which fake images of idols were circulated, but today’s technology makes the harm far more serious. In this context, what measures are needed to protect the “human rights of the body’s owner”?

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Future Challenges

In this reading group we tackled issues from women’s bodies to clothing choices, from sexual representation to how we convey complex debates. From our discussion three key needs emerged:

1. Promote Understanding of the Morning-After Pill

   We need a society—and an informed public—where women can make choices about their bodies with minimal physical and mental burden, and where the morning-after pill is better understood and accessible.

2. Cultivate a Culture That Embraces Complexity

   To ensure that marginalized voices aren’t lost when debates are oversimplified, we must learn to accept complexity as complexity.

3. Safeguard Human Rights in Sexual Expression

   We need to curb human-rights abuses enabled by AI in sexual media, protect performers on set, and reinforce sex education that distinguishes reality from fantasy and emphasizes informed consent.

In compiling these minutes, we felt keenly how difficult it is to hold on to nuance when putting complex issues into words. In our next session, we hope to resist the urge to simplify specialist terms and instead keep sharing everyone’s own vocabulary.

Minutes prepared by Danshiro

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References

"Grasping Gender Studies"Written by Yuki Senda, Yuko Nakanishi, and Kaoru Aoyama

• Chapters 7: Body and Gender

• Chapters 8: Feminism and Gender

  
  
  
  

This introductory book offers foundational insights into gender studies, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding gender dynamics. Written in an accessible tone, it is an ideal starting point for readers.